Seventy years ago almost nobody used the word “environment” the way we do now. This page is the story of how that changed — and it is the page examiners raid for named examples, so treat the tables as a bank to memorise from rather than prose to read once.
Environmental perspectives, and the beliefs underneath them, change over time in every society. Many factors cause that, but the most common are campaigns by governments or non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and social and demographic change.
The clearest example is the surge in environmental awareness from the 1950s into the 1970s, driven by campaigns against pollution:
The environmental movement is the term for humanity’s increasing awareness of the damage we are causing to the environment, and of the importance of conserving the environmental health of our planet.
It includes a diverse range of individuals, organisations and initiatives united by one goal: addressing urgent environmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, habitat destruction and species extinction. It promotes sustainable development, responsible resource management, conservation of biodiversity, and the transition to cleaner renewable energy — through changes in public policy and in individual behaviour.
| Person | What they did | Effect on the movement |
|---|---|---|
| Wangarĩ Maathai | Founded the Green Belt Movement, campaigning for tree planting, conservation and women’s rights | Mobilised grassroots activism and promoted conservation locally and globally |
| Greta Thunberg | Led global youth strikes for climate action, challenging political leaders | Inspired millions to join climate activism and pressed policymakers to act urgently |
| Vandana Shiva | Campaigned for sustainable agriculture and biodiversity, questioning corporate dominance | Raised awareness of the impacts of industrial agriculture and promoted community-based alternatives |
| David Attenborough | Naturalist and broadcaster raising awareness through documentaries | Educated and inspired audiences worldwide, building appreciation for the natural world |
| Jane Goodall | Pioneering primatologist advocating wildlife conservation and ethical treatment of animals | Advanced understanding of animal behaviour and empowered people to protect biodiversity |
| Year | Work and author | What it said, and what changed |
|---|---|---|
| 1949 | A Sand County Almanac, Aldo Leopold | Argued for a land ethic of conservation and stewardship. Shaped modern conservation ethics and inspired activism |
| 1962 | Silent Spring, Rachel Carson | Set out how the pesticide DDT passes along food chains to top predators. Created widespread concern about pesticide use and pollution |
| 1972 | The Limits to Growth, Meadows, Meadows, Randers & Behrens | A report for the Club of Rome on a rapidly growing population meeting finite resources. The best-selling environmental publication in history |
| 1975 | The Monkey Wrench Gang, Edward Abbey | A novel about eco-sabotage and resistance. Influenced activism by promoting radical tactics |
| 1979 | Gaia, James Lovelock | First book to propose Earth as a self-regulating system, like a living organism. Showed how humanity can upset that balance |
| 1992 | Beyond the Limits, Donella Meadows | Follow-up to The Limits to Growth, exploring routes to sustainable development. Influenced policy towards eco-friendly practice |
| Year | Title | What it did |
|---|---|---|
| 2006 | An Inconvenient Truth | Documentary of former US Vice President Al Gore lecturing on climate change. Reached a huge worldwide audience and triggered a major shift in US public opinion |
| 2009 | No Impact Man | Follows a family attempting a zero-waste life in New York City. Raised awareness of individual carbon footprints and urban sustainable living |
| 2016 | Before the Flood | Leonardo DiCaprio explores climate impacts and solutions. Advocated renewable energy and conservation |
| 2019 | Our Planet | Netflix series showing Earth’s natural beauty and human impact. Raised awareness of conservation and the need to protect ecosystems |
| 2021 | Breaking Boundaries | Netflix documentary on humans pushing Earth beyond the boundaries that kept it stable for 10 000 years, narrated by David Attenborough |
| Year | Event | What happened, and what changed |
|---|---|---|
| 1956 | Minamata disease, Japan | Chemical factories released methyl mercury into wastewater; it accumulated in fish and shellfish, poisoning local people with neurological damage, paralysis, death and birth defects. Raised awareness of industrial risk and the need for regulation |
| 1984 | Bhopal, India | Explosion at a pesticide plant released 42 tonnes of methyl isocyanate, killing 10 000 people in 72 hours and 25 000 in total. Drove demands for stricter regulation and corporate accountability |
| 1986 | Chernobyl, Soviet Ukraine | Reactor explosion spread fallout across Ukraine, Belarus and Russia; 336 000 people evacuated and cancer rates rose. Hardened public fear of nuclear power and strengthened calls for safer alternatives |
| 2011 | Fukushima, Japan | Tsunami caused meltdowns in three of six reactors; 110 000 evacuated. Intensified global concern about nuclear safety — though Japan’s temporary nuclear shutdown increased its dependence on fossil fuels |
| Year | Event | What it achieved |
|---|---|---|
| 1972 | Stockholm Declaration | The first major UN conference on international environmental issues. Influential in setting environmental targets locally and internationally |
| 1992 | Rio Earth Summit | UN Conference on Environment and Development, attended by 172 nations. Led to over 178 parties adopting Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan for sustainable development |
| 1997 | Kyoto Protocol | Treaty building on the UNFCCC. 192 parties committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide and methane |
| 2012 | Rio+20 | UN Conference on Sustainable Development, 20 years after Rio. Assessed progress on agreed targets and identified emerging challenges |
| 2015 | Paris Agreement | Agreed by 195 parties at COP21. Aimed to hold global average temperature rise below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels; every country agreed to set targets and report progress |
| 2021 | Glasgow Climate Pact | 197 countries at COP26 reaffirmed the Paris temperature goal. First climate deal to explicitly commit to reducing coal use, though late intervention weakened it to “phasing down” rather than out |
| 2022 | COP27, Sharm El Sheikh | Created the first loss-and-damage fund and addressed measures to limit temperature rise |
| 2023 | COP28, Dubai | Final agreement commits signatories to move away from carbon energy sources |
| Development | What it is | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Green Revolution | Mid-20th century agricultural advances that raised crop yields and addressed food scarcity | Improved food security and reduced pressure on habitats, but raised concerns about intensive farming |
| Enteric fermentation control | Methods to cut methane from livestock, such as altering feed to improve digestion or adding compounds that inhibit methane-producing microbes | Reduces methane emissions from agriculture and lowers climate impact |
| Plant-based meats | Meat substitutes made from plant sources | Reduces demand for animal agriculture, easing deforestation, habitat loss and emissions |
| Electric cars | Vehicles powered by electric motors rather than internal combustion | Lowers carbon emissions and air pollution, driving the shift to sustainable transport |
| Discovery | Effect on the movement |
|---|---|
| Pesticide and biocide toxicity | Raised awareness of environmental risk, leading to regulation, pesticide bans and alternative pest control |
| Species loss | Documented rapid global decline in species diversity, driving conservation efforts and policy to protect ecosystems |
| Habitat degradation | Highlighted destruction and fragmentation of habitats, leading to protected areas and restoration initiatives |
| Ocean acidification | Falling ocean pH from rising carbon dioxide. Raised concern for marine ecosystems and drove research and policy responses |
Behaviour-time graphs show how specific behaviours change over time, which makes them useful for tracking shifts in perspective. A graph of smoking rates, for instance, shows decades of decline driven by anti-smoking campaigns and rising health awareness — and the UK’s Stoptober campaign produces visible dips each October.
Other behaviours commonly tracked this way include littering, water use, recycling rates, renewable energy use, public transport use and meat consumption. They can also record shifts from traditional indigenous lifestyles to modern ones: long-term studies show changes in clothing, housing, personal belongings and food consumption as globalisation spreads.
Influences on the movement
Outline two factors that contributed to the development of the environmental movement, using named examples. (4 marks)
Why perspectives changed
Explain how environmental perspectives shifted between the 1950s and the 1970s. (4 marks)
Evaluating an influence
Evaluate the role of media in shaping environmental perspectives. (4 marks)
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