This is the section with the most names to learn, so treat it as a filing system rather than a list. Get clear on what a convention is, what a protocol is, why they take decades to agree, and which ones actually worked — and the twenty organisations stop feeling like twenty separate facts.
📘 What you need to know
International law is the rules and principles governing relations between nation states and other international entities such as IGOs, NGOs and MNCs.
It provides a framework for cooperation, negotiation and dispute resolution on a global scale.
A convention is a legally binding treaty agreed at a UN conference. A protocol is a supplementary agreement that becomes binding once ratified.
Example: the UNFCCC is the convention; the Kyoto Protocol is a protocol under it; the Paris Agreement succeeded Kyoto.
Agreements are slow because of complexity, changing science, stakeholder pressure, differentiated responsibilities, financial commitments, geopolitics and economic impact.
Three protocols to know: Montreal (1987), Kyoto (1997), Paris (2015).
Five bodies to know: CITES, IUCN, CBD, Ramsar and UNEP.
What international law does
International law refers to the rules and principles governing relations between nation states and other international entities — intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs). It provides a framework for cooperation, negotiation and the resolution of disputes globally.
For the environment, its key job is transboundary issues: pollution and resource management that extend beyond national borders. It gives countries mechanisms to work together on shared challenges rather than each acting alone and hoping.
Transboundary pollution: the ASEAN Haze Agreement
The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution tackles haze caused by land and forest fires. When fires burn in one country, such as Indonesia, neighbours including Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand can be badly affected by the resulting air pollution.
Participating countries commit to preventing and reducing haze through cooperation, information sharing and coordinated response. In practice that means:
Sharing information on the location and extent of fires, and on weather patterns that affect how haze spreads.
Coordinating firefighting efforts, including deploying firefighting resources and aiding affected communities.
Developing prevention strategies such as sustainable land management and fire-breaks.
Transboundary resources: the FAO plan on IUU fishing
The Food and Agriculture Organisation’s International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing targets IUU fishing, which threatens marine ecosystems and sustainable fisheries.
Countries collaborate to strengthen monitoring, control and surveillance of fishing activity and to promote responsible practices. That includes sharing intelligence on suspicious activity, keeping IUU-caught fish out of global markets, running joint patrols in high-risk areas, monitoring vessels in shared waters, and enforcing fishing quotas and gear restrictions such as minimum net hole size.
Notice how similar these two look. Both work by information sharing, coordinated enforcement and agreed standards — not by a global police force. That is what international environmental cooperation actually consists of, and saying so shows real understanding.
The UN, conventions and protocols
The United Nations was founded in 1945, after the Second World War, to promote peace, security, cooperation and development among nations. It is a forum where member states discuss global issues including environmental protection. UN conferences bring representatives together to create international conventions and protocols.
CONVENTIONS (AGREEMENTS)
Legally binding treaties agreed at UN conferences
All signatory countries must follow the rules and obligations they set out
Example: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
PROTOCOLS
Supplementary agreements that may become legally binding if ratified
Usually focus on specific measures or commitments on a particular issue
Example: the Kyoto Protocol, an extension of the UNFCCC setting emissions targets
Get this hierarchy right and questions about “conventions versus protocols” answer themselves.
Why agreements are so slow
Challenge
What it means in practice
Complexity
Negotiations involve many stakeholders and intricate technical detail
Scientific knowledge
Rapid advances in science mean agreements need constant updating and revision
Stakeholder pressures
Governments face pressure from groups with conflicting interests, prolonging negotiations
Differentiated responsibilities
Countries disagree over how responsibility should be allocated, for example who cuts emissions and by how much
Financial commitments
High-income countries may struggle to meet financing promised to low-income countries for climate adaptation and mitigation
Geopolitical conflicts
General tension between countries slows progress regardless of the environmental merits
Economic impact
Fear of economic repercussions makes consensus harder to reach
🤔 Why “differentiated responsibilities” is the hardest one
Most historical greenhouse gas emissions came from countries that industrialised first. Those countries are now wealthy partly because of that. Countries industrialising today argue they should not be asked to cut emissions at the same rate, since they contributed least to the problem and need growth to reduce poverty. Wealthy countries argue an agreement is pointless if the fastest-growing emitters are exempt — which is exactly the criticism made of the Kyoto Protocol. Both positions are internally reasonable, which is why this is a negotiation and not a technical fix. If you can state both sides fairly, you are writing at the top band.
Three protocols and agreements
1. Montreal Protocol (1987)
Full name: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Aim: protect the ozone layer by phasing out production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Relative success: highly successful — emissions of ODS have fallen rapidly.
Developments: continual amendments have strengthened it over time, accelerating phase-out schedules and expanding the list of controlled substances.
2. Kyoto Protocol (1997)
Full name: Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Aim: build on the UNFCCC by committing state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Relative success: it successfully set binding targets for developed countries.
Developments: it raised awareness of climate change, but was criticised for not imposing emissions reductions on major developing countries. It was later succeeded by the Paris Agreement.
3. Paris Agreement (2015)
Full name: Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Aim: hold the increase in global average temperature to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels.
Relative success: a landmark agreement with nearly all countries committing to climate action, agreed by 195 parties at COP21.
Developments: countries regularly update their emissions reduction targets and submit long-term low-emission strategies. It includes provisions for climate finance and technology transfer to support developing countries. Challenges remain in achieving widespread implementation and meeting financing commitments.
Why Montreal succeeded where climate agreements struggle. Ozone depletion had a small number of specific chemicals, workable substitutes, and a clear, visible harm. Climate change involves the entire energy system of every economy. Use Montreal as the proof that international law can work, then explain why climate is harder.
International agreements and the institutions they create
International agreements are treaties or conventions signed by multiple countries to address shared challenges. They foster cooperation, establish rules and promote collective action. Crucially, they often create institutions to make themselves work:
Implementation support: bodies that help put the agreement into practice and monitor progress.
Coordination: platforms for coordinating efforts, sharing information and promoting collaboration among members.
Capacity building: support and resources so countries can develop the expertise needed to meet their obligations.
Body
What it does
Key example
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Regulates international trade in endangered species to ensure their survival; assists members in implementing and enforcing the convention; works with customs authorities and wildlife agencies
Regulates the trade in elephant ivory to protect populations from poaching and trafficking
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
Conserves biodiversity and promotes sustainable use of natural resources; runs global forums; provides scientific expertise and policy guidance
The Red List of Threatened Species, assessing the conservation status of species worldwide
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
Conserves biodiversity, promotes sustainable use of its components, and ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources
The Aichi Biodiversity Targets, setting goals such as protecting habitats and preventing extinctions
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Protects wetlands of international importance and promotes their sustainable use; coordinates members in designating and managing sites
Lake Natron in Tanzania, designated to conserve its ecosystem and support migratory birds
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Coordinates environmental activities, assists countries in implementing policies, provides scientific assessment and capacity building
The Global Environment Outlook reports, published roughly every five years
The IUCN Red List categories
The IUCN assesses species and places them in categories of extinction risk. The detail that matters for the exam is which categories count as threatened.
Species are reassessed continually, so a category is a snapshot of current risk rather than a permanent label.
EXAM-STYLE
Distinguish between an international convention and a protocol. [2]
Convention
A legally binding treaty agreed at a UN conference, which all signatory countries must follow, for example the UNFCCC.
Protocol
A supplementary agreement that adds specific measures or commitments to a convention and becomes legally binding only if it is ratified, for example the Kyoto Protocol under the UNFCCC.
2 marks: binding treaty vs supplementary agreement requiring ratificationNaming the UNFCCC and Kyoto as a matched pair makes the relationship obvious to the examiner.
EXAM-STYLE
Evaluate the effectiveness of international agreements in protecting the environment. [6]
Evidence they work
The Montreal Protocol (1987) phased out CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, and emissions of ODS have fallen rapidly. It has been strengthened repeatedly through amendments. The Paris Agreement (2015) achieved near-universal participation, with 195 parties at COP21.
Evidence they struggle
The Kyoto Protocol set binding targets only for developed countries and was criticised for exempting major developing emitters. International law also has limited enforcement, because it depends on states agreeing to be bound and conflicts with national sovereignty.
Why the difference
Montreal dealt with a small set of chemicals with available substitutes. Climate agreements involve every sector of every economy, so complexity, differentiated responsibilities, financial commitments and economic fears all slow progress.
Judgement
International agreements are effective where the problem is narrow, the science is settled and alternatives exist. For broad problems they set direction and coordinate action but cannot compel it, so they need strong national implementation alongside.
6 marks: both sides with named agreements, explanation of the difference, justified conclusion
💡 Exam tip
Learn the three protocols with their years: Montreal 1987, Kyoto 1997, Paris 2015. Dates are free marks.
Use Montreal as your success story and Kyoto as your qualified one. A balanced pair beats a list.
Learn the five bodies with one function and one example each: CITES, IUCN, CBD, Ramsar, UNEP.
Remember only Vulnerable, Endangered and Critically Endangered count as threatened.
Quote 195 parties at COP21 and below 2 °C for the Paris Agreement.
Name sovereignty and enforcement as the structural weaknesses of international law.
⚠ Common mix-up
Convention and protocol used interchangeably. A protocol sits under a convention and needs ratification.
Kyoto described as a failure. It set binding targets and raised awareness; its weakness was scope, not the idea.
Paris described as binding in the same way as Kyoto. Paris relies on countries setting and updating their own targets.
CITES confused with CBD. CITES regulates trade in endangered species; CBD covers biodiversity conservation and benefit sharing.
“Near Threatened” counted as threatened. It is not one of the three threatened categories.
Listing organisations with no function. Every name needs a job and, ideally, an example.
That completes 9.2. For revision, read this alongside Environmental Justice and Its Obstacles in 9.1 — the challenges listed there are exactly the reasons the agreements on this page take decades to negotiate.
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